Concepts to Use for Analysis

Concepts of Analysis & Change in Meaning

How Words Get from Latin or Greek to English: A Theoretical Chart

Rough Etymological Meaning V I A Changes by Metaphor & Metonymy to Current Meaning

Original meaning supposed
(reconstructed by history or theory)

REM

Rough Etymological Meaning

Diachronic

changes

[Rough

Etymological

Meaning

in Greek:

'through

time']

V [by]

I [way]

A [of]

MR [metaphor: from Greek, with Rough Etymological Meaning, 'across carry or bear'; Greek phor is a cousin to Latin fer & to English bear, as well as Sanskrit, bharami, i.e. all are cognates in the family of languages known as Indo-European]
Metaphor can be defined as the transfer or exchange of some basic notion or idea between one domain & another,
e.g., "He is the father of his country"
[transfer from biological domain to political domain] or
"The mother of all storms."
[transfer from biological domain to meteorological domain];
cf., e.g., "A ruler shepherds his people."
or, in a religious context,
"The pastor (English 'clergyman' from Latin 'herdsman') shepherds his flock (i.e., congregation, from Latin greg- 'herd'). He treats them as a shepherd treats sheep.." ]

For further definitions & discussion of metaphor, click here

MY metonymy: from Greek, with Rough Etymological Meaning, 'across name']: one part of a domain stands for the whole, or the whole stands for a part (zooming in or out, specializing or generalizing) within a semantic field, e.g. "The White House denied that the President lied." [the building name stands for one of the officials who works in it] or
"Please give me a kleenex." [the brand name stands for the product named] or
"The hired hand worked hard." [one part, the hand, stands for the whole worker.

Also, transferral of basic idea between diverse grammatical functions (Parts of Speech): e.g., "A father fathers a child, a mother mothers it." The nouns cross over to work as verbs within the same domain
cf., e.g., "A shepherd herds a herd of sheep."

For further definitions & discussion of metonymy, click here & also here

Synchronic usage ['contemporary']

Current Meaning
[in English, Italian, etc., metaphor means ‘turn or trope in speech & thought’ but in modern Greek it also refers to ‘transport’ or ‘moving’ as by a moving van, which is an interesting metaphonc extension]

A Latin verb & some of its correlated functions in other Parts of Speech: facio, facere, feci, factum bases: fac- & fact- "to send, to put, to place: to send, put, or place as...= <via metaphor > to make" ('to make' becomes the most common meaning) facies (noun: "outward appearance, the look of something, aspect, sight; form, shape, outline; countenance, facial expression" facilis (adjective, fac + ilis, suffix meaning "characterized by, tending to, like"), cf. facile (adj.) & facility (noun)	deriving, then, from Latin facies we have (beside Italian, faccia, Spanish faz, French face) the following correlatives in English face (noun), e.g., "on its face" or "put a better face on it" or "the slippery rock face" or cf. facet. to face (noun used as verb), e.g., "to face the consequences" or "to face up to" or "to face off" face (noun used as adjective), e.g., "face time with the CEO is precious" or "a face lift was advised." facial (adjective formed from noun by means of suffix -al), "of the face, related to face," but then facial (noun from adjective), "a beauty treatment of the face", which is advised for anyone who may be considred as being facially (adverb from adjective) challenged (answers question, HOW challenged or impaired, i.e., with [dis]respect to the face).

A Latin verb & some of its correlated functions in other Parts of Speech:

facio, facere, feci, factum
bases: fac- & fact-
"to send, to put, to place:
to send, put, or place as...= <via metaphor > to make"
('to make' becomes the most common meaning)
facies (noun: "outward appearance, the look of something, aspect, sight; form, shape, outline; countenance, facial expression"
facilis (adjective, fac + ilis, suffix meaning "characterized by, tending to, like"), cf. facile (adj.) & facility (noun)

deriving, then, from Latin facies we have (beside Italian, faccia, Spanish faz, French face) the following correlatives in English

face (noun), e.g., "on its face" or "put a better face on it" or "the slippery rock face" or cf. facet.

to face (noun used as verb), e.g., "to face the consequences" or "to face up to" or "to face off"

face (noun used as adjective), e.g., "face time with the CEO is precious" or "a face lift was advised."

facial (adjective formed from noun by means of suffix -al), "of the face, related to face," but then

facial (noun from adjective), "a beauty treatment of the face", which is advised for anyone who may be considred as being

facially (adverb from adjective) challenged (answers question, HOW challenged or impaired, i.e., with [dis]respect to the face).

Consonants: Names & Part of Mouth Where Made

Mouth Part

Technical Term
(from Latin)

Voiceless Consonant

plain

breathy [aspirate]

Voiced Consonant

plain

breathy
(aspirated con-
sonants not used in English)

lips

labial

p (as in "pin")

*ph

b (as in "bin")

*bh*

* "ph" is pronounced as "f" in modern languages (e.g., philosophy, philsophie, filosofia);

teeth

dental

t (as in "tog")

*th*

d (as in "dog")

*dh*

but "ph" comes from ancient Greek (phi)

throat

guttural

k (" c" in "cog")

*kh*

g (as in "god")

*gh*

which was pronounced with a puff of breath like our English "p" in "pin"